The Cell Cycle Essay Example for Free

The Cell Cycle EssayI. Concept 12.1- Cell air division results in genetically identical daughter carrellsA. Overview1) The continuity of life is based on the reproduction of kiosks or cellphone division. 2) The cell division process is an total part of the cell rung, the life of a cell from the time it is first formed from a dividing p bent cell until its own division into deuce cells.B. cellular Organization of the Genetic Material1) A cells endowment of DNA, its genetic information is called its genome. 2) Before the cell can hotshot out to form genetically identical daughter cells, all of the DNA must be copied and then two copies separated so that each daughter cell ends up with a complete genome. 3) The replication and distribution of DNA is manageable because the DNA molecules are packaged into chromosomes. 4) The nuclei of a human somatic cell (all body cells except the productive cells) each contain 46 chromosomes made up of two sets of 23, one set inherited fro m each parent. 5) Reproductive cells or gametes-sperm and eggs-have half as many another(prenominal) chromosomes as somatic cells, or only one set of 23 chromosomes. 6) eucaryotic chromosomes are made of chromatin, a complex of DNA and associated protein molecules.C. Distribution of Chromosomes During Eukaryotic Cell Division 1) After DNA duplication, the chromosomes condense Each chromatin fiber becomes densely coiled and folded, making the chromosomes much shorter and thick. 2) Each duplicated chromosome has two sister chromatids. The two chromatids, each containing an identical DNA molecule, are initially attached along their lengths by adhesive protein complexes called cohesins. This attachment is known as the sister chromatid cohesion.3) The duplicated chromosome has a narrow waist at the centromere, a specialized region where the two chromatids are most closely attached. 4) Later in the cell division process, the two sister chromatids of each duplicated chromosome separate and move into two new nuclei, one forming at each end of the cell. 5) Mitosis, the division of the nucleus is usually founded immediately by cytokinesis, the division of the cytol. 6) You produce gametes by a variation of cell division called meiosis, which yields nonidentical daughter cells that have only one set of chromosomes.II. Concept 12.2- The mitotic shape alternates with interphase in the cell cycleA. Phases of the Cell Cycle1) The mitotic phase (M) phase, which includes both mitosis and cytokinesis, is usually the shortest part of the cell cycle. 2) Mitotic cell division alternates with a much longer layer called interphase, which often accounts for about 90% of the cell. It is during interphase that the cell grows and copies its chromosomes in preparation for cell division. 3) Interphase can be divided into subphases* G1 phase (first gap)* S phase (synthesis)* G2 phase (second gap)4) Mitosis is conventionally broken down into five stages prophase, prometaphase, metapha se, anaphase, and telophase.B. The Mitotic Spindle1) Many of the events in mitosis depend on the mitotic spindle, which begins to form in the cytoplasm during prophase. This construction consists of fibers made from microtubules and associated proteins. 2) In animal cells, the assembly of spindle microtubules starts at the centrosome, a subcellular region containing material that functions throughout the cell cycle to fig out the cells microtubules. 3) An aster, a radial array of short microtubules. The spindle includes the centrosomes, the spindle microtubules, and the asters.4) Each of the two sister chromatids of a replicated chromosome has a kinetochore, a structure of proteins associated with specific sections of chromosomal DNA at the centromere. 5) During prometaphase, the spindle microtubules attach to the kinetochores which then moves the chromosomes toward the pole from which those microtubules extend. 6) At metaphase, the centromeres of all the duplicated chromosome are on a plane middle(prenominal) between the spindles two poles. This plane is called the metaphase plate.C. Cytokinesis1) Cytokinesis occurs by a process known as cleavage. The first sign of cleavage is the appearance of a cleavage furrow. 2) The contractile ring of actin microfilaments act as drawstrings. The cleavage furrow deepens, until the parent cell is split in two, creating two daughter cells. 3) In launch cells, vesicles from the Golgi apparatus move along microtubules to the middle of the cell, where they coalesce, producing a cell plate.D. Binary Fission1) The asexual reproduction of single-celled eukaryotes includes mitosis and occurs by a type of cell division called binary fission, meaning division in half. 2) Prokaryotes overly reproduce by binary fission, but the prokaryotic process does not direct mitosis. 3) In E. coli, the process of cell division is initiated when the DNA of the bacterial chromosome called the origin of replication, producing two origins. 4) T he origin replicates while the other origin moves to the opposite end of the cell. The cell elongates and replication finishes and a new cell wall is deposited, which in result creates tow daughter cells.E. The Evolution of Mitosis1) Since prokaryotes evolved before eukaryotes, mitosis may have evolved from binary fission. 2) accepted protists exhibit types of cell division that seem intermediate between binary fission and mitosis.III. Concept 12.3-The eukaryotic cell cycle is regulated by a molecular control systemA. Evidence for Cytoplasmic Signals1) Hypothesis The cell cycle is driven by specific signaling molecules present in the cytoplasm 2) Evidence comes from an experiment where they induced cultured mammalian cells at different phases of the cell cycle to fuse.B. The Cell Cycle Control System1) The sequential events of the cell cycle are directed by a distinct cell cycle control system, a cyclically operating set of molecules in the cell that both triggers and coordinates k ey events in the cell cycle. 2) A checkpoint in the cell cycle is a control point where stop and move signals can regulate the cycle (using signal transduction pathways). 3) If a cell receives a go-ahead signal at the G1 checkpoint, it will usually complete the G1, S, G2, and M phases and divide. 4) If it does not receive a go-ahead signal at that point, it will exit the cycle, switching into a nondividing state called the G0 phase.C. The Cell Cycle Clock Cyclins and Cyclin Dependent Kinases 1) Rhythmic fluctuations in the abundance and body process if cell cycle control molecules pace the sequential events of the cell cycle. These regulatory molecules are mainly proteins of two types protein kinases and cyclins. 2) Many of the kinases that drive the cell cycle are actually present at a constant concentration in the growing cell, but much of the time they are in inactive form. 3) To be active, such a kinase must be attached to a cyclin, a protein that gets its name from its cyclic ally fluctuating concentration in the cell. 4) Because of this requirement, these kinases are called cyclin-dependent kinases, or Cdks. 5) The activity of a Cdk fluctuates with changes in the concentration of its cyclin partner. 6) MPF (maturation-promoting factor) is a cyclin-Cdk complex that triggers a cells passage past the G2 checkpoint into the M phaseD. Stop and Go Signs Internal and foreign signals at the Checkpoints 1) An example of an internal signal is that kinetochores not attached to spindle microtubules send a molecular signal that delays anaphase 2) A growth factor is a protein released by certain cells that stimulates other cells to divide. 3) Different cell types respond specifically to different growth factors or combinations of growth factors. For example, platelet-derived frpwth factor stimulates the division of a human. 4) The found of an external physical factor on cell division is clearly seen in density-dependent inhibition, a phenomenon in which crowded cel ls stop dividing. 5) Most animal cells also exhibit anchorage dependence. To divide the must be attached to a substratum, such as the inside of a culture jar or the extracellular matrix of a tissue.E. Loss of Cell Cycle Controls in Cancer Cells1) Cancer cells do not heed the normal signals that regulate the cell cycle. They divide excessively and invade other tissues. In addition to their lack of density-dependent inhibition and anchorage dependence, cancer cells do not stop dividing when growth factors are depleted. 2) A logical hypothesis is that cancer cells do not need growth factors in their culture medium to grow and divide. 3) The problem of cancer begins when a single cell in a tissue undergoes transformation, the process that converts a normal cell to a cancer cell. The bodys immune system unremarkably recognizes a transformed cell as an insurgent and destroys it. 4) If the abnormal cells remain at the original site, the lump is called a benign tumor. 5) In contrast, a ca ncerous tumor becomes invasive enough to impair the function of one or more organs. These tumors can proliferate and spread to locations distant from their original site in a process called metastasis.

Darwins Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection Essay Example for Free

Darwins Theory of organic evolution by Natural Selection EssayThe mechanisms for individuals in a population to survive heterogeneous habitats have been a sinewy debate within the scientific community. The native European Littorina obtusata are a great model organism to study Darwins Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection. This is because of their vast phe nonypic characteristics, particularly their evolving pillory thickness throughout history due to predatory pressures of the new arrival of Carcinus maenas.Here we psychometric test whether L obtusata three most critical tenants of Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection variation within a population, heritability, and selection. By observant the shell thickness of East edge of N. America L. obtusata where predatory C. maenas are common versus the West Coast of N. America where C. maenas are not found, it will besides provide evidence whether these shell thickness differences are due to natural selection predat ory or phenotypic plasticity occurring. This was tested by placing band crabs in both East and West populations of L. btusata and observing how their shell thickness decreased, make headway proving that L. obtusata cannot sense or smell the presence of C. maenas. These findings provide further evidence for Seeleys research that the accelerating morphological changes of L. obtusata shell thickness was in response to strong selection by C. maenas and not because speciation occurring.Some believe that Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection is operating the morphological breaks found in fossil records within a population. Darwins book On the Origin of Species listed four basic postulates to natural selection there must be variations among individuals in a population, variations must be heritable, survival and reproduction must be variable and non-random (Darwin, 1859). As a result, every generation there will be slight changes in the population.One scientist in particular, R obin Seeley, assay understanding Darwins theory of Natural Selection by studying the thickness of shells of flat periwinkles, Littorina obtusata, of Appledore Island and the new arrival of predatory green crabs, Carcinus maenas. Seeley historied acceleration in natural selection that normally is not observed within the L. obtusata population in response to strong selection by C. maenas. This is because shell thickness affects the survivability and reproduction of L. obtusata when C. maenas claws break them to meal (Trussel, 1996).The observation confirmed that when C. maenas were introduced in the East Coast of N. America, L. obtusata range of shell thickness increased compared to the West Coast of N. America L. obtusata populations where predatory C. maenas were not found (Seeley, 1986). These vast morphological differences in their shell thicknesses was thought to occur because of the C. maenas selection for the thinner-shelled L. obtusata. Seeleys research further showed that sp eciation was not occurring within the intertidal snails as many previous scientists claimed.

Case Study On A Patient With Oesophagitis Nursing Essay

Case Study On A Patient With Oesophagitis Nursing EssayThe persevering was a female, age 89, with a BMI of 15.4 kg/m2 (underweight). Her presenting complaint was nausea and vomiting, bringing up coffee ground vomit, fatigue and loss of appetite since two years ago. Her past medical history included atrial fibrillation, paranoid psychosis and iron deficiency anaemia. She also had a cholestectomy done in year 2000. She was single and lived solo she neither smoked nor drank. in that respect was no relevant family history recorded for her case. On admission she was pickings medication stated in Table 1 be demean-ranking. She was known to be allergic to ciprofloxacin.Table 1 Repeat medication interpreted on admissionDrugDoseDigoxin125 g at once periodicalLisinopril2.5 mg once in the morningFurosemide40 mg once dailyClopidrogel75 mg once dailyQuetiapine fumarate125 mg in two ways dailyTramadol hydrochloride100 mg twice dailyCodeine phosphate60 mg one to be taken as requiredParaceta mol500 mg four times dailyFolic acid5 mg once dailyFerrous fumarate322 mg twice daily (Last prescription dated three months ago)clinical data and diagnosisOn admission, her temperature was 36.4C, pulse was 83 beats per minute, and her blood pressure was 124/46 mmHg. Her telescoped Mental Test (AMT) score was 7 forth of 10, indicating mild confusion. A full blood count, renal function test, liver-colored function test, and an electrocardiogram (ECG) were carried out. Her liver function test came back normal. The ECG showed some ST depression, but the patient denied any chest discomfort. Her haemoglobin levels were low at 9 g/dl (11.5-16.5 g/dl), while platelets were low at 108109/l 150-400109/l). her plasma urea was elevated at 38.2 mmol/l (2.5-7.5 mmol/l), and her creatinine was 273 mol/l (50-80 mol/l for female). Her creatinine dynamic headroom was calculated to be 8.1 ml/min, which indicated severe renal impairment. The diagnosis was acute renal failure, and gastritis or peptic ulcer disease.Clinical progressOn mean solar daytime 1, patient was dehydrated and had some upper abdominal discomfort (Dyspepsia). The plan was to stop tramadol, clopidogrel, lisinopril and furosemide, due to the coffee ground vomit and acute renal failure. Two units of RCC (Red cell concentrate) and IV fluids were given up. A urinary catheter was used to monitor urine output. Patient was continued on ferrous fumarate and given gaviscon 10mls. Quetiapine fumarate was not given as it was not available.On day 3, patient was paranoid as quetiapine fumarate was still not available, haloperidol 1 mg was given as an intramuscular injection according to the hospital guidelines. Her haemoglobin levels were back to normal (12 g/dl) and her creatinine clearance meliorate to 33.3 ml/min measurements were taken again because the values were so different. The catheter was taken out, but she was to receive subcutaneous fluids hourly. Patient was passing black stools. She was given Peptac 10 mls for abdominal discomfort and was scheduled for an endoscopy the next day. Quetiapine fumarate was given on day 4 and patient was taken off haloperidol.On day 6, the patients confusion was thought to be influenced by digoxin levels were checked and base to be 1.1 g/l (0.5-2.0 g/l) however dit of digoxin was decreased to 62.5 g. a rectum examination was conducted to make sure patient was not bleeding from the lower gastrointestinal tract. The gastroscopy report came back stating patient had grade D oesophagitis (Reflux oesophagitis), that is an extenxive mucosal breaks engaging at least 75% of oesophageal circumference. She was also fix to have a large chronic duodenal ulcer, non-bleeding with visible vessels. The plan was to saltation the patient on IV proton-pump inhibitor (PPI, pantoprazole 8 mg/hr) for 72 hours, oral omeprazole 20 mg daily, and eradicate H. pylori if infection was present (CLO test).On day 9, the CLO test came back negative. Patient was taken off IV PPI an d put onto oral PPI (omeprazole 40 mg daily). A repeat endoscopy was scheduled for the week aft(prenominal).Disease OverviewPrevalenceOesophagitis is the inflammation of the lining of the oesophagus, usually caused by irritation due to jut acid ebb.1,2 It is included under the boarder term of gastro-oesophageal ebbing disease (GORD), which also includes endoscopy-negative reflux disease.3 In the UK, there is a 28.7% prevalence of GORD, and the risk is found to increase with age, especially for those over 40 years of age. There is an estimated of over 50% of GORD patients between 45 and 60 years of age.4 About 25 to 40% of people with GORD atomic number 18 found to have oesophagitis on endoscopy.5Pathophysiology, risk and diagnosisAcid reflux can occur because of incompetence of the lower oesophageal sphincter, a transient complete relaxation resulting from a failed swallow, that is, a swallow without the usual peristalsis wave (Found in 65% of patients). It can also be caused by a transient increase in intra-abdominal pressure (17% of patients), or a spontaneous free reflux due to the lower oesophageal sphincter having a low resting pressure (18% of patients).6Possible risk factors for GORD are pregnancy, excess alcohol consumption, smoking and hiatus hernia. Obesity is thought to be a risk factor, as substantially as certain foods like onions, citrus fruits and coffee. Drugs that are thought to relax the lower oesophageal sphincter like calcium channel blockers are thought to extend a role in promoting GORD. There is however very limited evidence to support these claims.4,5 It is now thought that more than 50% of GORD risk is genetic, as it is found that a first degree relative of a person with GORD is four times more at risk of getting the disease.4Diagnosis of GORD is ground importantly on the patients symptoms, predominantly acid regurgitation or heartburn.7 An endoscopy is usually the main diagnostic procedure done to confirm GORD.Pharmacological give-and-takes and mechanisms of actionThe main drug used for this disease is a proton-pump inhibitor (PPI). PPIs are one of the most prescribed drugs for the treatment of acid-peptic diseases, including GORD and peptic ulcer disease.8,9 They are substituted 2-pyridyl methysulfinyl benzimidazoles, with pKa around 4, and have a very short plasma half life of one to two hours. They are weak bases that are lipophilic, which allows them to cross the membranes of the parietal cells easily. Once inside the parietal cells, where the pH value is less than 4, they protonate into the activated tetracyclic sulphenamide form of the drug and accumulate inside the cells. Here they form covalent bonds with the cysteine residues in the hydrogen/potassium adenosine triphosphatase (H+/K+ ATPase) enzymes, forming disulphide bonds, inhibiting the acid secretion activity of the pump irreversibly. Due to the covalent bonds, their duration of action exceeds their plasma half life. To resume acid product ion, the parietal cells must wherefore generate, or activate, new proton pumps.8,9 Examples of PPIs are omeprazole, lansoprazole, pantoprazole, and rabeprazole, the last of which has a pKa of 5, and is activated at a broader range of pH compared to the other three, leading to a higher acid-suppression activity.The crude side-effects of PPIs are nausea, diarrhoea, abdominal pain and headache. Diarrhea seems to occur because of a change in the gut flora brought about by the PPI, and appears to be age-related.8 PPIs, especially omeprazole, are known to alter the activity of cytochrome P in the liver, an important consideration for patients taking drugs with narrow therapeutic windows like warfarin and phenytoin. They also cause a prominent gastric pH increase, and are able to inhibit or decrease the absorption of weak bases that require acid for absorption, like iron salts, griseofulvin, and vitamin B12.8former(a) drugs that may be used in this case are H2 receptor antagonists, whic h inhibit the secretion of acid by stopping histamine from binding to the H2 receptors on the parietal cells and prokinetic drugs, usual examples like cisapride, metoclopramide and domperidone, which work by increasing the pressure of the lower oesophageal sphincter, and accelerating gastric emptying.10Evidence for treatment of the conditionThe National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) guidelines state that, for the management of oesophagitis on endoscopy, patients are to be given full dose PPI for one to two months. If there is a response to the treatment, low dose PPI is given, probably on an as required basis. If there is no response, the dose of PPI is doubled for another month, before switching to low dose PPI. If there is no response to the doubled dose of PPI, treatment is then switched to a histamine H2 receptor antagonist or a prokinetic.11Klinkenberg-Knol EC et al1 compared the effects of omeprazole and ranitidine in a randomise, double-blind, endoscop ically-controlled trial done on patients with reflux oesophagitis. Omeprazole was given at a dose of 60 mg daily while ranitidine was given at 150 mg twice daily. The symptoms were evaluated before starting the trial, and at the second, fourth and eighth week. Endoscopy was done at the start of the trial, and repeated during week 4, with another after 8 weeks if there was an absence of improve at week 4. For patients taking omeprazole, 19 out of 25 patients improved from Grade 2 or 3 (erosions or ulcerations) to Grade 0 or 1 (erythema and friability)12 after 4 weeks while for patients taking ranitidine 7 out of 26 showed similar improvement (P = 0.002). At week 8, corresponding improvement was shown in 22 out of 25 for the omeprazole group, and 10 out of 26 for the ranitidine group (P = 0.001). Omeprazole showed a significantly higher meliorate rate, which was reflected in a better improvement of reflux symptoms as well. Patients receiving omeprazole experienced a more profound an d faster relief of heartburn, which was the most common symptom complained by the patients (P = 0.0001). After 2 weeks, 92% (23 out of 25 patients) of patients receiving omeprazole reported that their reflux symptoms were either gone or had improved, while only 65 % (17 out of 26) of the ranitidine group reported the same (P = 0.01). This reflect however, only showed the superiority of omeprazole over ranitidine in the short term treatment of reflux oesophagitis. Further studies were needed to evaluate the effects of omeprazole in long term management and at a lower dose.Havelund T et al12 performed a double blind study on patients with Grade 1, 2 and 3 reflux oesophagitis. Patients were allocated randomly in this study to a treatment with omeprazole (40 mg once daily), and ranitidine (150 twice daily), for a period of 12 weeks. It was found that patients treated with omeprazole had a faster response to the treatment than those taking ranitidine (P 0.0001). For the omeprazole grou p, healing rates were reported at 4, 8 and 12 weeks to be 90%, 100% and 100% respectively for those with Grade 1 reflux oesophagitis. For Grade 2 and 3, corresponding healing rates were 70%, 85% amd 91%. While for the ranitidine group, healing rates were 55%, 79% and 88% for Grade 1, and 26%, 44% and 54% for Grade 2 and 3. This pointed to a superiority of omeprazole at a lower dose (40 mg) over ranitidine. Sandmark S et al13 did a similar study, but with an omeprazole dose of 20 mg daily. Healing of oesophagitis was targeted in this study to be a complete healing of all ulcerative and erosive lesions in the oesophagus. At 4 weeks, healing rates were shown to be 67% in the patients taking omeprazole and 31% in those taking ranitidine (P 0.0001). Corresponding healing rates were 85% (Omeprazole group) and 50% (Ranitidine group) after 8 weeks (P 0.0001). This was also reflected in a more profound and faster- improvement in reflux symptoms in the patients taking omeprazole (51% by th e end of the first week compared to 27% for patients taking ranitidine).Robinson M et al14 conducted a study to compare, in patients with erosive oesophagitis the efficacy and tolerability of omeprazole at a dose of 20 mg daily to ranitidine at a dose of 150 mg twice daily together with a prokinetic drug metoclopramide at a dose of 10 mg four times daily. It was found that healing rates for omeprazole were significantly greater than that for ranitidine in combination with metoclopramide. Omeprazole also provided a more profound relief for patients with reflux symptoms. More side effects and treatment-related withdrawals were found among the patients allocated the ranitidine-metoclopramide combination. Omeprazole was thus found to be more effective and better tolerated. Iskedjian M and Einarson TR conducted a meta-analysis15 of the three drugs cisapride, omeprazole and ranitidine for GORD treatment. At 12 weeks, 95% of patients were cured in the omeprazole group (40 mg daily), 81% in the ranitidine group (600 mg daily), and approximately 60% in the cisapride group (40 mg daily). In mild GORD, healing rate was 56% for cisapride versus 38% for ranitidine, while healing rates for cisapride and omeprazole showed no significant difference. In severe GORD, the healing rate for cisapride was only a half of that of omeprazole (43% versus 87%), while showing no significant difference when compared to that of ranitidine (50%). Thus it was concluded that omeprazole is favoured for treating severe GORD, while cisapride may be that of mild GORD.Vigneri S et al16 compared 5 living therapies after an initial treatment of omeprazole 40 mg daily for 1 to 2 months, and healing was confirmed by endoscopy. Patients were then randomly assigned 12 months of treatment in the 5 following groups cisapride (10 mg three times daily), ranitidine (150 mg three times daily), omeprazole (20 mg daily), ranitidine and cisapride, or omeprazole and cisapride. At 12 months 54% of the cisapride g roup, 49% of the ranitidine group, 80% of the omeprazole group, 66% of the ranitidine-cisapride group, and 89% of the omeprazole-cisapride group were found to be in remission at 12 months of maintenance therapy. Omeprazole showed a significantly better efficacy than cisapride (P = 0.02), and ranitidine (P = 0.003). Ranitidine-cisapride combination therapy was found to show a more profound improvement than ranitidine alone (P = 0.05). Omeprazole-cisapride combination therapy showed better efficacy than cisapride (P = 0.003), ranitidine (P 0.001), and also ranitidine and cisapride combination therapy (P = 0.03). Omeprazole as monotherapy or in combination with cisapride is found to be more effective for maintenance therapy of reflux oesophagitis, compared to ranitidine or cisapride alone. Omeprazole in combination with cisapride shows more efficacy than ranitidine and cisapride.The effects of newer PPIs lansoprazole (30 mg daily), rabeprazole (20 mg daily) and pantoprazole (40 mg dai ly) were compared with that of omeprazole (20 mg daily), ranitidine (300mg daily) and placebo in randomised clinical trials brought together by Caro JJ et al.17 The healing rate ratios noted for the newer PPIs as well as omeprazole were as follow lansoprazole 1.62 rabeprazole 1.36 pantoprazole 1.60 and omeprazole 1.58. There was a greater decrease in the heartburn symptoms in patients taking PPIs than those taking ranitidine (P 0.002), as well as in the healing of ulcers (P 0.05), and lapsing (P 0,01). Compared to placebo, the PPIs obtained a much more profound relief of reflux symptoms (P 0.01), healing of ulcers (P 0.001) and relapse (P 0.006). From this study, it was found that there is not much difference between the newer PPIs and omeprazole when it comes to relief of reflux symptoms, ulcer healing and rate of relapse, while all PPIs are better than ranitidine and of course, placebo in terms of treatment for erosive oesophagitis.Kahrilas PJ et al18 compared esomeprazole and omeprazole efficacies in reflux oesophagitis patients. It was found that more patients (P 0.05) on esomeprazole 40 mg and esmoprazole 20 mg were healed after 8 weeks of treatment compared to omeprazole (94.1% and 89.9% compared to 86.9%). Adverse effects were common in twain treatments. Esomeprazole was found to have a greater efficacy compared to omeprazole in reflux oesophagitis and both have a similar tolerability profile. Rohss K et al19 showed that esomeprazole at 40 mg daily had better acid control than omeprazole 40 mg daily. Since maintenance of intragastric pH 4 is important for the effective management of GORD, the mean percentage of a 24 hour period with intragastric pH 4 was taken as an indication of the efficacy of the treatments. Measurements were taken on day 1 and day 5, and on both days esomeprazole showed a greater mean percentage (P 0.001) at 48.6% and 68.4% versus 40.6% and 62.0% for omeprazole.Wahlqvist P et al20 compared,from the perspective of the Nat ional Health Service (NHS),the cost effectiveness of the actue treatment of esomeprazole (40 mg daily) with omeprazole (20 mg daily) in reflux oesophagitis patients.It was estimated that, taking into consideration of the healing probabilities over 8 weeks, treatment with esomeprazole saves up toa total of 1290 pounds compared to treatment with omeprazole. Esomeprazole was found to provide a greater effectiveness at a lower cost. This is reflected in another study conducted by Plumb JM and Edwards SJ,21 which found that esomeprazole is cost effective in comparison to all other PPIs for the treatment of reflux oesophagitis.ConclusionThe treatment given to this patient was appropriate in terms of the algorithms stated in the NICE guidelines she was started on a full dose PPI after eosophagitis was confirmed on the endoscopy. As stated above, PPIs are proven to have superior effects in comparison with histamine H2 receptor antagonists and prokinetic drugs, both providing relief of reflu x symptoms but not healing the oesophagitis itself.10 Among all the PPIs currently available, esomeprazole, the S-isomer of omeprazole, has been found to show more improvement than all other PPIs. Current studies have shown that the treatment of reflux oesophagitis with esomeprazole is more cost effective than treatments using any other PPI, providing a greater healing rate at a lower cost. Thus it might be in the interest of the NHS to treat this patient with esomeprazole than omeprazole.(2271 words)

Differences of Truth in Mathematics, Ethics and Art

Differences of Truth in Mathematics, Ethics and ArtThe rational minds profound and abstract speculations since time immemorial has been the personality of truth, a profoundly rooted philosophical conundrum1, whose thought itself has revolutionized the realistic value possessed by the areas of friendship. Truth itself preoccupies a substantial role in our daily conversations, but its multi-dimensional nature has perplexed even the most profound thinkers like Plato and Aristotle as well as recent philosophers who have failed in uncovering this mystery lying at the heart of human culture. Although the word truth is tagged with the purpose of a utilitarian role, we humans mould it into a form recognized by the abstract framework of our human mind, otherwise known as a schema. Hence the question of the value of truth involved in whatever statement is believed to be a consequence of the social constructivism based on beliefs and our rearing. Over the past years, truth has been dealt w ith individually in terms of its approach towards an array of knowledge areas. The conclusion is an underpinning of the diverse perspectives that truth holds in a variety of areas of knowledge. Thus, it indicates not only a difference in the form of truth but also a similarity involved in deciphering the existence of truth. My essay ventures to explain the extent to which truth has been given varied significance in three distinct areas of knowledge mathematics, arts and ethics in terms of the characteristics which define them.Since the abstract nature of truth has posed to be a universal dilemma, various theories have been explicate to gauge the truth value of any statement. Mathematics is often considered the language of trustworthyty2and well-known for its infallibility and abstract thought. What make outs mathematicians and philosophers believe that mathematics is closest to the absolute truth is its pellucid structure of methodology and judgments, and its influence on solvab ility to achieve an absolutely correct or incorrect answer. The mathematical truth is bound by certain rules and barriers which squeeze this area of knowledge, hence a more constrained approach built on pure logic, and deductive-reasoning influences the truth involved in a mathematical stand-point. In mathematics a statement must be true or false is a clichd saying and reflects the overall understanding which defines the outcome. Most mathematicians suss out the fact that the set theory forms the firm foundation upon which the complex structure of math has been erected. But what intrigues these mathematicians is that can much(prenominal) an abstract area have any real life applications? A glimpse into the history of mathematics would surely assert the above question. For example, a number of theories in the past were thought to be a mere theoretical phenomenon but today behold a firm position in the real world. The Non-Euclidian Geometry was first considered as an idealistic com e apart of mathematics, but today has carved its way into the theories of relativity. In the present global situation, the population of the world has crossed the six billion mark and threatens to exp matchlessntially make its way up through the population charts. For example in China, in order to curb the population rush in the country, the government has pressed upon having unrivalled baby per family. From the mathematical view-point, the objective truth lies in the fact that in order to restore the habitat around us it is vital to take such a step in the interest of the future generations. From the ethical stance, their version of truth is completely antipodal because the basis of a truth-value in this statement is a reflection of ones emotional self rather than a projection of a logical mind. In ethics, hence, an argument is a rhetoric affair where people lease to be persuaded what I believe rather than proving the trueness involved in my proposition. I feel that my observatio n into this example is a projection of the extent to which one event holds a different stance from the spectacle of the truth value supporting the claim. What defines a stark line of difference between math and ethics as deciphered from the above example is the conflicting nature of moral opinions and that there are no observable facts to base the truth value on in an ethical viewpoint. The difference in moral opinions amongst people whitethorn be lead by the cognitive apparatus of the individual. Since ethics is considered to be a bailiwick of personal concern, influenced by previous knowledge and experiences of the individual, the moral differences would explain that in ethics, there is no underlying truth to be discovered. But what defines morality in ethics is the position of ethical relativism, the belief that ethical view-points are relative to one culture or another. One of the most indignant moral issues at hand is spontaneous abortion. Every individual agrees the medical procedures which culminate into an abortion. But there seems to be an equally repulsive response when it comes to agreeing the morality of abortion. In short, the matter of abortion has its agreement on medical science but doesnt touch upon the area of medical ethics. So, at all points of time, the entire scenario is a relative representation of a statement and it is an appearance but not the reality. I have always observed myself making hollow as well as emotionally drive promises and always have the statement Promises ought to be kept at the back of my mind. This seems to be a moral principle, but it cannot be categorized as a factual claim. But on close observation, the truth factor within the statement shows close relations between such a statement and a mathematical proposition. If the phenomenon of promise is known and the true essence of its obligation is understand, there exists a relation between ideas. Though relativism and subjectivism are parallel in certain terms, art as an area of knowledge has been considered as a representation of reality. Friedrich Nietzsche aphorism We have art in order not to die of the truth, self-consciously asserts the fact that this world has art in order to live the truth.Though the ways of knowing have paved the path for the route to attaining truth in these three areas of knowledge, where reasoning, emotion and perception have dominated the approach to the ultimate reality in math, ethics and arts respectively, the truth value in all(prenominal) of its statements has a certain similarity. The form of assumptions which are utilized in proving a certain statement to be true is a recurring observation in all three areas of knowledge. The kind of truth that art is striving to convey to us may be completely different from the ay an individual may grok it. Hence how do we judge a piece of art if it holds completely different opinions in the minds of 2 people? When viewing a work of art, it may evoke an emotion, and the recognition of this emotion may be an indication of the truth. However, there is a common view-point amongst people that photography has revolutionized the way truth is perceived since it portrays a much more accurate picture of the entire scenario. Since the photo is a mere observation and appearances are truly deceptive. It is established that the truth involved in a painting is not prejudiced but a projection of the individuals personal interpretation, hence speaks about the viewer. Truth in terms of art is a reflection of beauty and is completely devoid of any form of logic.Truth has been shaped in numerous ways pertaining to the satisfaction of the individual contesting the truth in his mind. There is one single truth in relation to a statement and through the exploration into three distinct areas of knowledge, I have understood that the method of approaching the subject is what defines the truth involved in it. Plato himself argued to a great extent that there is a definite an swer for anything to be considered superb or bad, if one exercises his deductive reasoning skills as opposed to what the Sophists believed that such statements are a matter of subjective truth and is totally based on human interpretation and his desire.

The Definitions And Theories On Globalisation Politics Essay

The Definitions And Theories On sphericization Politics EssayWithout an iota of doubt it can be said that one of the metanarratives of our clock is globalisation. Indeed, the phrases wish the domain has let a global village provoke become clichs. To quote Fred Halliday ball-shapedization has become, over the past few years, the catchword of international stinting and political depth psychology. Halliday, 2000, pp. 238 David Held and Anthony Mcgrew have expressed this in a slightly assorted way Indeed, globalization is in danger of becoming, if it has non already become, the clich of our times the mountainous idea which encompasses everything from global financial markets to the Internet but which delivers little substantive insight into the contemporary human condition Held, Mcgrew, et al. 1999, pp. 1 They then superinduce globalization reflects a far-flung perception that the military personnel is rapidly being moulded into a sh atomic number 18d sociable s step by scot ch and technological forces and that developments in one region of the military personnel can have profound consequences for the life chances of individuals or communities on the early(a) side of the globe.IbidHere in this paper, prototypic we will deal mentalityh the expositional and conceptual aspects of globalization. then we will focus on the prospects and challenges of globalization. Finally, we will try to arrive at a cogent conclusion.DEFINITION AND CONCEPTUALIZATIONGlobalization has been defined by different writers in different ways. Indeed, it has got different meanings to different people. fit in to Anthony Mcgrew, in simplest terms, globalization refers to widening, deepening and speeding up of gentlemans gentlemanwide interconnectedness Mcgrew in Smith and Baylis (ed), pp. 20.Martin Griffiths and terrycloth O Callaghan have defined is as the acceleration and intensification of mechanisms, work outes and activities that are allegedly promoting global interdepen dence and perhaps ultimately global political and economic integration. It is, therefore, a revolutionary concept, involving the deterritorialisation of kind, political, economic, and cultural life. Griffiths and OCollaghan, 2004, pp. 126-127.According to Steve Smith and John Baylis, globalization is the process of increasing interconnectedness in the midst of societies such that events in one part of the creative activity have more and more effects on peoples and societies for away. They have a ilk conceptualized the global world as one in which political, economic, cultural and social events become more and more impact. Smith and Baylis ed, 2005, pp. 8It is to be viewed not as a perfect series of reforms giving free rein to multinational companies but as a radical programme to reshape the entire, economic, political, legal and ideological landscape of capitalism Zuege, Leys et al (ed), 2006, pp. 1.Amiya Kumar Bagchi has provided a different interpretation of globalization i n his paper Womans oeuvre and well-being in a Globalising world as a deliberate concatenation and control of processes of production, ex channelise, learning and services by the well-heeled in rich nations of the world in collusion with the rich of most countries so as to increase their own indicator and wealth at the cost of the poor and deprived everywhere. Bagchi in Kar (ed), 2005, pp. 276We may cite a few more definitions of globalization In words of Giddens, globalization refers to the intensification of cosmopolitan social relations which link removed(p) localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away and vice versa. Quoted in Smith and Baylis (ed), 2005, pp. 24Gilpin calls it The integration of the world- miserliness. Ibid.Scholte conceptualizes it in terms of De-territorialisation or the growth of supraterritorial relations between people. IbidDavid Harvey defines globalization in terms of time space compression. IbidAnth ony Mcgrew defines globalisation as a historical process involving a fundamental shift or innovation in the spatial scale of human social organization that links distant communities and expands the r to each one of power relations across regions and continents. Mcgrew in Smith and Baylis (ed), 2005, pp. 24In his presidential address to the 78th Annual Conference of the Indian Economic Association (28-30 Dec, 1995), Deepak Nayyar defined globalization as the expansion of economic activities across political boundaries of the nation lands. More authoritative, perhaps, it refers to a process of increasing economic integration and growing economic inter-dependence between countries in the world economy. It is associated not only with an increasing cross-border movement of goods, services, capital, engine room, information and people also with an organization of economic activities which straddles national boundaries. Nayyar, 1996, pp. 1Held and Mcgrew have written, A satisfactory de finition of globalization must capture each of these elements extensity (stretching), intensity, velocity and impact. And a satisfactory account of globalization must examine them thoroughly.By acknowledging these dimensions a mere precise definition of globalization can be offered. Accordingly, globalization can be thought of asa process (or set of process) which embodies a version in the spatial organization of social relations and transactions assessed in terms of their extensity, intensity, velocity and impact generating transcontinental or interregional flows and networks of activity, interaction, and the exercise of power. Held and Mcgrew (ed), 1999, pp. 15-16.According to C. Sheela Reddy, globalisation is a mixed, multidimensional, social, economic, cultural, technological and political process in which the mobility of capital, ideas, technology, organizations and people has acquired a growing global and transnational form. Advances in clean technology (in particular i nformation and communications technology), cheaper and quicker transport, trade, liberalization, increase in financial flows and growth in the size and power of corporations are its distinctive features. It is a blessing to people proceedsting from the new opportunities. At the selfsame(prenominal) time new(prenominal)s are being left behind in poverty, effectively marginalized from the hopes that globalization h old(a)s out. Reddy, 2008, pp. 84Thus, from the above definitions, we may reiterate some important aspects of globalization like increasing interaction of social, economic, and political activity, relative deterritorialisation and de-nationalisation of the kingdom, increasing movements of good and services, deregulation of national economy and so on.Anthony Mcgrew observes that globalization is characterized by a stretching of social, political and economic activities across political frontiers.the intensification, or the growing magnitude of interconnectedness in almost every sphere of social existence.the accelerating pace of global interactions and processes as the evolution of world wide schemas of transport and communication.the growing extensity, intensity and velocity of global interactions. Mcgrew in Steve and Baylis (ed), 2005, pp. 22PERIODISATION OF GLOBALISATIONThe periodisation of the process of globalization has been a matter of intense debate. Some regard it as a new phenomenon, eon others regard it as the new phase of an old phenomenon and thus old wine in a new bottle. Chandan Sengupta has written One opinion is that the concept of globalization dates back to the voyage of discovery in the 15th century. According to Immanuel Wallerstein, the capitalist economic foundation of globalization was laid as early as in the16th century. Ronald Roberstson traced the historical temporal path of globalization to the present(a) complex structure of global system by means of five phases (i) the germinal (1400-1750) phase of dissolution of c hristendom an emergence of nationalism in Europe, (ii) the incipient (1750-1875) phase of nation country and the initial phase of internationalism and universalism in Europe, (iii) the take off (1875-1925) phase of conceptualization of the world as a single international society, global calendar, first world war, mass international migration and inclusion of non-Europeans in the international club of nation states (iv) the struggle for hegemony (1925-1969) phase of cold war, the emergence of legue of Nations and the UN, and the emergence of tercet world, and (v) the suspense (1969-1992) phase of space exploration, recognition of global environmental problem and global mass media, via space technology The roots of newly appear forces of globalization have been traced in specific economic and political developments in the late 1980s or early 1990s. Sengupta, 2001, pp. 3137TWO PERSPECTIVES OF THE CONCEPTUAL CONSTRUCTIONS OF GLOBALISATIONAccording to Chandan Sengupta, there are two broad contexts in which globalization has been defined. These two contexts are not very far from one another. One is the economic context, the other that of non-economic which broadly includes socio-cultural, historical and political dimensions of globalization. Such a division of however, the author admits, in reality appear to be false because it is difficult to observe cultural dimensions of globalization solely independent of its material aspects. Scholars like Immanuel Wallerstein have resorted to the first perspective. While, Giddens, Robertson and Waters et. al, have tried to look globalization through the prism of socio-cultural perspective. Ibid, pp. 3138.THE GLOBALISATION DEBATE AND THE putting green chord SCHOOLS OF THOUGHTAnthony, Mcgrew, David Held et. al have pointed out three broad schools of thought in relation to the globalization debate namely the hyperglobalizers, the sceptics, and the transformationalists. In essence each of these schools may be said to repr esent a distinctive account. We will highlight briefly what these theses areFor the hyperglobalisers, such as Ohmae, contemporary globalization defines a new era in which peoples everywhere are increasingly subject to the disciplines of the global marketplace. By contrast the sceptics, such as Hirst and Thompson, argue that globalization is fundamentally a myth which conceals the reality of an international economy increasingly segmented into three major regional blocs in which national governments remain very powerful. Finally, for the transformationalists, primary(prenominal) among them being Rosenau and Giddens, contemporary patterns of globalization are conceived as historically unprecedented such that states and societies across the globe are experiencing a process of profound change as they try to adapt to a more interconnected but exceedingly uncertain world.Interestingly more of these three schools map directly on to traditional ideology positions or worldviews. Held and M cgrew, et. al, 1999, pp. 2Held and others have also summarized the three dominant tendencies of globalization debate in a tabular form as follows. Conceptualizing globalization three tendencyHyperglobalistsScepticsTransformationalistsWhats new?A global ageTrading blocs, weaker geogoverance than in earlier periods diachronicly unprecedented levels of global interconnectednessDominant featuresGlobal capitalism, global governance, global civil societyWorld less interdependent than in 1890sThick(intensive and extensive) globalizationPower of national governmentsDeclining or eroding strengthened or enhancedReconstituted restructuredDriving forces of globalizationCapitalism and technologyStates and marketsCombined forces of modernityPattern of stratificationErosion of old hierarchiesIncreased marginalization of secNew architecture of world ordersDominant motifMcDonalds, Madonna etc.National interestTransformation of political communityConceptualization of globalizationAs a reordering of the framework of human actionAs internationalization in regionalisationAs reordering of interregional relations and actions at a distanceHistorical trajectoryGlobal civilizationRegional blocs / clash of civilizationsIndeterminate global integration and fragmentationSummery argumentThe end of the nation-stateInternationalisation depends on state acquiescence and supportGlobalization transformation state power and world politicsIbid, pp. 10It is noteworthy that when it comes to the sources of contention in the globalization debate, Held and others have mentioned five important sources namely conceptualizationcausationperiodisationimpactsand the trajectories of globalization. Held and Mcgrew et al.,1999,p10 It is not the purpose of this paper to explore them all at length. So, we will limit our discussion to the prospects and challenges of globalization only.PROSPECTS OF GLOBALISATIONGlobalisation is a double edged phenomenon. It has got prospects as well as challenges.As regards the prospects or post dimensions of globalization, Smith and Baylis have writtenThe pace of economic transformation is so great that it has created a new world politics. States are no semipermanent closed units and they cannot control their economies. The world economy is more interdependent than ever, wit trade and finances ever expanding.Communications have fundamentally revolutionized the way we deal with the rest of the world. We now live in a world where events in one location can be immediately observed in the other side of the world. Other side of the world. Electronic communications alter our notions of the social groups we work and live in.There is now, more than ever before, a global culture, so that most urban areas resemble one another. The world shares a common culture, much of it emanating from Hollywood.The world is becoming more homogeneous. Differences between peoples are diminishing.Time and space seem to be collapsing. Our old ideas of geographical space and of chr onological time are undermined by the speed of modern communications and media.There is emerging a global polity, with transnational social and political movements and the protrudenings of a transfer of committedness from the state to sub-state, transnational, and international bodies.A cosmopolitan culture is developing. People are beginning to think globally and act locally.A risk culture is emerging with people realizing both that the main risks that face them are global (pollution and AIDS) and that states are unable to deal with the problems. Smith and Baylis, 2005, pp. 10-11C. Sheela Reddy wrote about the positive dimensions of globalizations as follows Increasing economic opportunities for countries to visualise markets in which their labour forces can compete effectively.Opportunities for countries with institutional and technical infrastructure to attract investments.Increasing consumer choice and falling prices for individuals around the world.Increasing protection of unguarded groups, as communications technology facilitates global awareness and actions by international solidarity and human rights movements.Better protection of the right to seek, receive and impact information through new communication tools including cellular phones, satellite television and the internet.The right of freedom of association or freedom of assembly for which physiologic presence is no longer required due to new communication tools.Facilitating exchange of information on social policies and services, access to educational information and multicultural link with people of other cultures. Reddy, 2008, pp. 86Certain writers argue that now national boundaries do not stand in way of process of an individual or a community convey to globalization. Men (and women) have gained access to the treasure of knowledge and culture which is the product of genius all over the world. Now local communities have the opportunity to benefit from technology information, services, and m arkets available anywhere in the world. Finally, globalization has created an awareness regarding the global environment all over the world, and different nations have come to recognize global problems as a matter of their individual and collective responsibility Gauba, 2005, pp. 173Another section of writers who strike a balance between the merits and demerits of globalization have illustrious that globalisation has raised per capita income in the world to three times since 1945 it has created awareness regarding environment, and congenial conditions for disarmament. It has brought the condition of subordinate groups to limelight and inspired them to form their global organizations for their emancipation. It has also liberated them from the ideological domination of their local communities and enabled them to fight for their legitimate rights. IbidAs regard the impact of globalization on women, Lene Sjorup has written women are ( ) involved in globalization at a number of interloc king, diverse and sometimes even contradictory levels. They may very well be the victims of one aspect of globalization, while they remain central actors in other aspects. Why, I ask myself, paint a picture of an overwhelming enemy confronting women, when a more detailed socio-religio-political analysis shows that women participate in complicated ways in global developments? Women surely are confronted with a number of obstacles at many levels. vindicatory, why use a mega-term like globalisation for describing the arch-enemy, instead of analyzing the many forms of oppression women face within the process of globalization, and including those from which we also benefit. Sjorup, 1997, pp. 97Thus, it would be wrong to treat globalization as a total anathema.As regards the future of globalization, Stanley Fischer (the first Deputy Managing Director of IMF) commented to Closing Panel Discussion of IMF on Aug 26, 2000What about the future (of globalization)? Two cheering observations to begin withFirst, most developing countries continue to liberalize trade condescension their complaints about the global trading system. We calculate an index of trade barriers for individual IMF member countries. well-nigh uniformly, it shows that barriers to trade have been declining in the developing countries. They understand that unilateral trade liberalization is in their own interest, they are arguing for the advanced countries to open up not for themselves to close down and that is good news.Second, despite the recent crisis, capital accounts in almost all emerging market countries have remained open. And the two largest economies with comparatively closed capital accounts. They understand that is the best way to go. They understand that is the best way to go. They are doing it cautiously and gradually and they are right to do it that way. But the direction in which they are moving is clear. Policy-makers in almost all developing countries have no intention of reversing t he process of capital account opening, despite their complaints over much of what is going on in the world, and despite their concerns over the recent crises. http // www.imf.org/external / np/ speeches/2000/082600.htm. visited on 21/03/10 at 8.30 p.mHe has also mentioned two forecasts.The first is conditional if we, and this means policy makers of the advanced countries and the international institutions, manage the processes well and bring the developing countries into the process of globalization, it will continue, to the potential benefit of all and to the likely benefit of almost all. And, second, there will be surprises along the way. IbidCHALLENGES OF GLOBALISATIONThe rewards of globalization has not been uniform and equitable. It has benefitted only a certain category of states and people. M.A. Ommen has even called it a contrived phenomenon. He cites three reasons why globalization is not the culmination of a indispensable process Firstly, the world today is virtually g overned by the G-7 countries (the USA, the UK, Japan, Canada, France, Germany, and Italy). The IMF, World Bank and the World Trade Organization (WTO), the avatar of GATT, are neatly co-opted into the process of the economic management of the world.Second, knowledge and technology are not a free pursuit. They are in captivity, so to say. The military powers (this includes the former Soviet Union) and transnational corporations (TNCS) have manipulated science technology for power and profit. This trend continues. The end of cold war has not materially altered the situation.Third, the United States of America as Prof. Vernon points out, has been trying to create an international system in its own image has pioneered the so-called development ideology to counter communism. Ommen, 1995, pp.75GLOBALISATION THE NEW AVATAR OF IMPERIALISMSome scholars are viewing globalization as the new face of imperialism. They are of the view that imperialist globalization is gradually spreading its wi ngs to cast an abysmally dark shadow world over. Thinkers like Ranen sen are very much critical of this contretemps. He writes Globalisation is paving the way for the US imperialism which is out to exploit the unipolar geopolitics. Militarization and more self-assertive programmes are designed within framework of hegemenistic objectives of the CIS authorities .. Washington has a long-term plan to destabilize the south and central Asian countries which have untapped hydrocarbon resource. Afghanistan has a massive resource of natural gas and Iraq has a developed oil industry. The US scheme of subversion in Afghanistan, Iraq and adjacent countries in energy new. After becoming the hegemonistic ruler of world capitalist order, by-line the collapse of the USSR, Washington pressed Pentagon more vigorously into service to dominate the oil and natural gas sectors in those countries.Sen in Kar (ed) 2005, pp. 93-94It is often claimed that globalization has led to the increasing interdepend ence. Now, the basic questions concern. Interdependence among and who are the beneficiaries? Samit Kar writes in the preface of GLOBALISATION ONE orb MANY VOICES pp. 12 Is this interdependence of world society real or tilted in favour of the richer nations?Neo-Marxists are also apprehensive of the lopsided development brought by globalization Robert Cox and other neo-Marxists stress the uneven hierarchical nature of economic globalization. The global economic power is increasingly concentrated in the lede industrialised countries, including the United States, Japan, and the States of Western Europe. That means the economic globalization will not benefit the impoverished masses of the Third World. Nor will it improve the backing standards of the poor in the highly industralised countries. Jackson and Sorensen, 2003, pp. 217 Mahuya Chakrabarty writes in the same vein in the article Free Market Globalisation Oil conflict and US aggression-This so-called free market globalization does not actually mean the spread of productive capital in the world but the accelerated accumulation and assiduousness of capital in the few imperialist countries, chiefly the US. Liberalization, privatization and deregulation the key factors attached with free market globalization .. have accelerated the outflow of social weather created by the people from the neo-colonies to the neo-imperialist countries. Here, the principal actor is the MNCs the multinational agencies like the IMF, World Bank and WTO. Chakrabarty in Kar (ed), 2005, pp. 108Ranen Sen has written Globalisation is a bid to restructure the power and politics of developed capitalist countries under the US hegemony. It is in a way to recolonization through the trinity of World Bank, IMF and WTO. Sen in Kar (ed), 2005, pp. 94 In the same tune Petras and Polychroniou, have pointed out the real nature and motives of these financial institutions These institutions were controlled by appointees of the respective imperial states and their function was to displace national markets and local producers and undermine universal social legislation in order to facilitate the entry of multinationals and the primacy of domestic export elites producing for the markets of the imperial counties. Petras and Polychroniou, 1997, pp. 2251GLOBALISATION AND UNEVEN DEVELOPMENTThe process of globalization is highly uneven. Deepak Nayyar observes There are less than a dozen developing countries which are an integral part of globalization in the late twentieth century. Argentina, Brazil and Mexico in Latin America and Korea, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Singapore, China, Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand in Asia. These eleven countries accounted for about 30 percent of total exports from developing countries during the period 1970-1980. This share rose to 59 per cent in 1990 and 66 per cent in 1992. The same countries, excluding Korea, were also the main recipients of direct investment in the developing world accounting for 66 per cent of the bonny annual inflows during the period 1981-1991 this evidence suggests that globalization is most uneven in its spread and there is an exclusion in the process. Sub-Saharan Africa, West Asia, Central Asia and southeastern Asia are simply not in the picture, apart from many countries in Latin America, Asia and the Pacific which are left out altogether. Nayyar, 1996, pp. 15Nayyar also notes that the benefits of integration with the world economy, through globalization, would accrue only to those countries which have laid the requisite foundations for industrialization and development. This means investing in the development of human resources and the creation of a physical infrastructure. This means the acquisition of technological and managerial capabilities at a micro-level. This means the creation of institutions that would regulate, govern and facilitate the functioning of markets. In each of these pursuits, strategic forms of state intervention are essential. The countries which have not created these pre-conditions could end up globalizing prices without globalizing incomes. In the process, a narrow segment of their population may be integrated with the world economy, in terms of consumption patterns or living styles, but a large proportion of their population may be marginalized even further. Ibid, pp. 16According to C. Sheela Reddy, the benefits of economic globalization have not accrued to the majority due to certain adverse consequences likeThe increase of inequalities among regions and nations, within nations and among individualsThe continued growth of poverty.The increase of peoples picture due to social risks such as unemployment and crime.The decrease in opportunities for regions, nations, communities and individuals to enjoy the benefits and advantages provided by globalization. Thus the benefits of globalization are not uniformly enjoyed at present as many people still live in poverty and the result of alleviation efforts are un even within and between the regions of the world. Reddy, 2008, pp. 87-88Hirst and Thompson have do a very harsh criticism of globalization. According to them, the most extreme versions of globalizations are a myth. In support of this claim, they have offered five arguments. First, the present internationalized economy is not unique in history. In some respects they say it is less open than the international economy between 1870 and 1914. Second, they find that genuinely transnational companies are relatively rare, most are national companies trading internationally. There is no trend towards the development of international companies. Third, there is no shift of finance and capital from the developed to the underdeveloped worlds. Direct investment is highly concentrated amongst the countries of the developed world. Fourth, the world-economy is not global, rather trade, investment, and financial flows are concentrated in and between three blocs Europe, North America, and Japan. Fin ally, they argue this group of three blocs could, if they co-ordinated policies, regulate global economic markets and forces quoted in Smith , Baylis, 2005, p. 11We will highlight here some other challenges of globalization First it must be borne in mind that competitive markets may be the best guarantee of efficiency, but not of equity. And markets are uncomplete the first not the last word in human development. There was a time when many activities and goods that are crucial to human development were provided orthogonal the market but these are now being squeezed by the pressure of global competition. The policy of structural adjustment which was forced on most of the leash world countries has reduced the amount of government expenses in health, employment as well as in education sector, subsequently making the people of the third world the victim of globalization.Second, unequal distributionWhen the market goes too far in dominating social and political outcome, the opportuni ties and reward of globalization spread unevenly and inequitably . concentrating power and values in a select group of people, nations and corporations, marginalizing the others. When the market goes our of hand, the instability grows up, as in the financial crisis in East Asia and its worldwide implications cutting global output by estimated 2 trillion dollar in 1998-2000.Since 1980s many countries have captured the opportunities of economic and technological globalization. Other than the industrial countries, the countries like India, Poland, Turkey, Chile are attracting foreign investment and taking advantage of technological progress. At the other extreme there any many countries, not all benefited from expanding markets and advancing technology Madagascar, sub-Saharan countries among others.Third, Inequality within and between countriesJayati Gosh has written in her article Imperialist Globalisation and the political economy of second Asia The recent process of imperialist g lobalization has been marked by greatly increased disparities, both within countries and between countries. Ghosh in Kar (ed.), 2005, pp. 260.Inequality has been rising in many countries since the early 1980s In China, disparities are widening between the export oriented region of the coast and the interior. The human poverty index is just under 20% in coastal provinces, but more than 50% inland Guijhou.Inequality between the countries has also been increasing. Noteworthy that the income gap between the richest and the poorest twenty percent in the world was just 31 in 1820. Today, the gap in one word is gargantuan. Let us look at the following statistics included in UNDP 1999 ReportYear Income Gap Ratio1820 311870 711913 1111960 3011990 6011997 741Again at the turn of the 21 century, the richest 20% of the worlds population had 86% of world GDP. The bottom fifth had 1% 82% of world export markets the bottom fifth

Buddhism and Ecology :: essays research papers

If there was ever a culture that truly c ared for the Earth, it was that of Buddhism. Buddhism itself is often known for commitment to World ecology. This is explored in the essay, Relational Holism, by David Landis Barnhill, in the book, Deep Ecology and World Religions. The subject of holism is brought to us many times and often acknowledgement of critical views is used to help air the information. Beginning with a strong statement by Barnhill, Critics of deep ecology have often attacked its holistic views of self and cosmology. For some, holism is both distorted and serious because it fails to affirm the individuality of beings and recognize the centrality of relations among individuals. (page 79)Most people, especially of the western hemisphere, would like to think of themselves as individuals and unique. This is interesting in that, many eastern civilizations want the opposite. It is plain a saying among Japanese, the nail that sticks out is pounded in,The next illustration o f holism is brought to us on page 85, In the conventional view, waves are independent, self-existing things. From the perspective of emptiness, however, the waves are recognized as lacking independent existence they are non water in a distinct and temporary form, yet the waves are not separate from the ocean, they are the ocean.Besides emphasizing holism, Barnhill discusses identification, with self and nature. One way of seeing that the holism prized by deep ecologists can be combined with the relationality emphasize by ecofeministsis to consider the notion of identification.

Silkwoods Working Class :: Movie Film Essays

Silkwoods Working Class 1 Before I begin, I would like to provide some information about where Im glide slope from as I look at Silkwood. When I chose this film, I did so in a somewhat desperate attempt to avoid operative on a film about war or a biographic film on a male historical figure. Alas, these are the types of films that tend to rein the historic genre. I turned to Silkwood not as a film about the nuclear industry or a murder mystery, scarce rather a film about a woman -- not a glamorous woman, but a real woman with flaws. I wouldnt endure chosen this film for the nuclear issue alone, as it is before my time and, at least at the onset of the project, I had no real mind of what the nuclear industry was all about. 2 Though it has been talked about as an anti-nuclear film, the nuclear theme is an underlying one. (A good question to ask is why this is NOT the primary(prenominal) issue.) The way I look at Silkwood is the way many reviewers have the central i ssue of this film is the story of the working class. I flavour that I can comment legitimately on this issue, as the rural Pennsylvania town where I grew up is not too far from Silkwoods okay countryside (except geographically, of course). Some of the problems the Kerr-McGee workers have are familiar to me. For example, job security, especially now as I write, is of utmost importance in my home familiarity. Like Crescent, Oklahoma, my community in Pennsylvania has one main industry, but it is at least a safe one tool and die. As technology increases, these jobs are meet obsolete, and, so, anyone in this trade in my hometown is lacking job security. And this in turn threatens other local businesses that depend on tool and die workers spending their money. 3 barely back to Silkwood. As an historical film, it immortalizes an image of the working class in Crescent, Oklahoma, as well as Karen Silkwood, their representative. It is important to think about how the film tr eats the working class -- is the tone condescending, honest, or quaint? And how does Karen fit in as their spokeswoman?